Background: Malnutrition is one of the major causes of morbidity and mortality in children. It is important to realize that normal length and weight being attained at 1 year of age, would predict the nutritional status at 3 years of age.
Objectives: To asses the nutritional status and the associated socio-demographic characteristics in supposedly healthy children of up to 2 years of age and highlight the importance of anthropometric measurements in routine child health care.
Setting and study design: A cross- sectional study using purposive sampling technique was conducted on children attending well baby clinic of National Institute of Child Health, Karachi during the year 2003-2005.
Subjects and Methods: Anthropometric measurements i.e. height and weight, were measured and a standard questionnaire was used to interview the mothers regarding socio-demographic back ground information after a verbal informed consent and ensuring confidentiality. Height for age, weight for age and weight for height of the children were compared with the National Centre of Health Statistics (NCHS) reference population of the United States, and Z-score < - 2 SD were considered as stunted, under weight and wasted respectively. Data was analyzed using SPSS software package.
Results: We observed stunting in 22%, wasting in15% and under weight in 31.6% children. Majority of children with low weight were between 19 - 24 months of age. Regarding socio-economic status of the households, 53.8% had family income less than Rs6000 /month and almost 50% had a family size of 6-10 persons. Parents' education to the level of illiteracy (father, 27% and mother, 40%) and incomplete immunization (20%) were other associated factors for stunting, wasting and under weight.
Conclusions: About 32% of children up to 2 years of age in the selected population were under weight, followed by stunning (22%).
Policy Message: Anthropometric measurement of children is a useful in routine child care settings as it will facilitate early identification and timely interventions for emerging health problems.

Background: A safe injection is defined as one that does not harm the receipent, expose the health worker to avoidable risk or result in waste that is harmful to others.
Objectives: To assess injection practices in Public Sector Expanded Programme of Immunization (EPI) clinics in three urban towns of Karachi and see if these clinics meet the necessary requirement for staff competence, supply of vaccines, injection equipment and their disposal.
Subjects and Methods: This was a health centre based cross-sectional survey conducted in 49 Public Sector EPI clinics from June 2008 to March 2009. These clinics were selected using random table from three urban towns i.e. Saddar, Lyari and Jamshed town of Karachi. Variables of the study were socio-demographic characteristics of the vaccinators including their training qualifications, staff competence, information regarding supply of vaccines, injection equipment, puncture proof safety boxes, maintenance of cold chain and vaccination/medical waste disposal. WHO tool for the assessment of injection safety was used as a questionnaire for the collection of data and it was analyzed on computer package SPSS version 11.
Results: Data showed that 35(71%) vaccinators were males and of the total, 38(78%) vaccinators were less than 30 years of age, 45(92%) were trained dispensers but also trained for vaccinations and 4(8%) staff nurses. It was observed that in all clinics disposable syringes were used for BCG and AD syringes were used for DPT, Measles and Hepatitis vaccination. Adequate amount of vaccines, injection equipment and puncture proof safety boxes were available, cold chain for the preservation of vaccines was well maintained, used syringes/needles were not re-used, families did not bring their own syringes for vaccination. Recapping of used syringes was observed in 20% clinics, skin barrier (piece of gauze under the thumb) while breaking vaccine bottles was not practiced in any EPI clinic. All used syringes and needles were thrown in puncture proof safety boxes. There was no history of needle prick injuries among vaccinators. Policy Document for safe injection practice and waste disposal was not found in any EPI clinic and the staff was ignorant about it.
Conclusions: The study concludes that in all 49 EPI clinics, injection practice was safe except its method of waste disposal, sufficient amount of vaccines, injection equipment, and puncture proof safety boxes were available and staffs of these clinics were well trained.

Background: There are differences in the distribution of ABO, subgroup ABO and Rh(D) blood groups in different populations of the world. Relatively little information is available about blood group distributions in Sudanese population.
Objectives: To see the frequency of ABO, subgroup ABO and Rh(D) blood groups in major Sudanese ethnic groups(Danagla, Shaygia and Gaaleen).
Subjects and Methods: Blood testing for ABO, subgroup ABO and Rh (D) typing was done over six months, in 300 unrelated individuals, from both genders. Blood samples were collected from students of the college of medical laboratory science - Sudan University of Science and Technology using finger prick method and following routine slide method.
Results: Blood group "O" was the most predominant (52.7%) in both Rh positive and negative subjects, followed by blood group A, B and AB. Majority (98.0%) of the subjects were Rh (D) positive and only 2% were Rh negative. The predominant subgroup of ABO was A2 (14.1%).
Conclusions: The frequency of ABO blood groups in both Rh positive and negative subjects among the major Sudanese ethnic group was similar to that reported from neighbouring regions.

Background: Un-bottled synthetic juices are sold by street venders and hawkers raising the concern about their safety.
Objectives: To examine the quality of un-bottled synthetic beverages from different locations of Peshawar city using standard techniques.
Materials and Methods: A total of 56 samples of un-bottled synthetic juices were collected from 8 different locations of Peshawar city and analyzed for Total Plate Count, Total Coliform Bacteria, Total Fecal Coliform bacteria, E. coli, Yeast & Mould.
Results: In all localities, the street vended un-bottled synthetic juices were found hygienically of poor quality as all had high total plate count which ranged from 2 x 102 to 5 x 107 and total coliform bacteria ranged from 110 MPN/ml. Total Fecal Coliform ranged from < 0.3 to 110 MPN/ml. The presence of E. coli contamination was found in (25) 44 % samples, while all the analyzed samples were contaminated with yeasts and moulds.
Conclusions: All un-bottled synthetic juices sold on roadside were highly contaminated with disease causing microorganisms.
Policy message: Periodic monitoring of street beverages should be carried out to make them safe for consumption.

Background: Hypodontia is congenital absence of one or more, but not all, of the normal complement of teeth. It is one of the most frequent alterations of human dentition. Hypodontia either alone or association with craniofacial developmental disorders can pose speech and masticatory dysfunctions along with aesthetic and functional problems. Oral Stereognostic ability can be used to diagnose and predict the prognosis of different treatment modalities in hypodontia patients.
Objectives: To compare oral stereognostic ability in hypodontia patients with those having normal dentition.
Study design: Case Control study, conducted in the Department of Prosthodontics, de'Montmorency College of Dentistry/ Punjab Dental Hospital, Lahore, Pakistan.
Patients and Methods: Forty hypodontia subjects were selected. Forty dental students of third and final year with normal dentition were selected as controls. Oral stereognostic ability scores were calculated using specific test samples for both groups.
Results: This study showed that oral stereognostic ability scores were reduced in hypodontia subjects with a significant p value<0.001. It confirms that hypodontia subjects had some difficulty in perceiving the intra oral objects.
Conclusion: Oral stereognostic ability was impaired in hypodontia subjects; correction at early age might improve the case.

Background: Retinoblastoma is a common childhood malignant intraocular tumor. Early detection and urgent treatment enhances survival in terms of sight and life. Ultrasonography has emerged as an indispensable tool for its examination and diagnosis.
Objectives: To evaluate the reliability of ophthalmic ultrasonography as a diagnostic tool for retinoblastoma in children.
Place and duration of study: Eye "A" unit department of Ophthalmology, Khyber Teaching Hospital, Peshawar, Pakistan, from January, 2007 to January, 2009.
Subjects and Methods: Patients with suspected clinical features of retinoblastoma were admitted in referral center for retinoblastoma. After recording history, patients underwent investigations which included ultrasonography later supported by examination under anesthesia and C.T Scan orbit and brain. Treatment was offered following initial diagnosis.
Results: A total of 25 children were initially diagnosed as retinoblastoma and were admitted in Eye "A" unit during the last 2 years. There were 16 males and 9 females. There were 16 unilateral and 9 bilateral cases. On ophthalmic ultrasonography, out of 34 eyes (25 patients), 33 (97%) revealed calcification and high reflectivity. Later a C.T Scan orbit and brain was also done. Histopathological confirmation was carried out in 17 enucleated eyes of 25 patients; where 9 patients had bilateral disease, 4 specimens were lost and 4 patients had intracranial extension and therefore enucleation was not advised in this group.
Conclusions: Ophthalmic ultrasound is an easy, reliable and non invasive method for the diagnosis of retinoblastoma.