The aim
of this study is to compare the relation between ventilation (V_E) and
oxygen uptake (VO₂) [VO₂=ƒ(V_E)] and between heart rate (HR) and
VO₂ [VO₂=ƒ(HR)]. Each one of the
subjects performed three types of activities of different intensities (walking
without load, walking with load and intermittent work). VO₂,
V_E, and HR were measured continuously by using indirect calorimetry
and an electrocardiogram. Linear regressions and coefficients of determination
(r²) were calculated to compare the relation VO₂ =ƒ(V_E) and VO₂ =ƒ(HR) for two different regroupings: by session duration
(r²_session) and by subject (r²_subject). Results showed
that r²_session of the relation VO₂ =ƒ(V_E) were significantly higher than those of the
relation VO₂ =ƒ(HR) for steady state
activities (walking with or without load during 3 or 6 min, p < 0.01) and for
activities without oxygen consumption steady state (walking with or without load
during 1 min, p < 0.01 and intermittent work, p < 0.05). V_E is
more strongly correlated with VO₂ than with HR. This is a very
promising approach to develop a new method to estimate energy expenditure.

The purpose of the study was to compare tubing-related injuries to wakeboarding- and water skiing-related injuries. Data was collected from the 2000-2007 National Electronic Injury Surveillance Survey for 1,761 individuals seeking care at an emergency department due to a tubing-, wakeboarding, or water skiing-related injury. Data included patient age and sex, as well as injury characteristics including body region injured (i.e., head and neck, trunk, shoulder and upper extremity, and hip and lower extremity) and diagnosis of injury (e.g., contusion, laceration, or fracture). Case narratives were reviewed to ensure that a tubing-, wakeboarding-, or water skiing-related injury occurred while the individual was being towed behind a boat. Severe injury (defined as an injury resulting in the individual being hospitalized, transferred, held for observation) was compared among the groups using logistic regression. Wakeboard- and tubing-related injuries more commonly involved the head and neck, while water skiing- related injuries were likely to involve the hip and lower extremity. Tubing-related injuries, compared to water skiing-related injuries, were more likely to be severe (OR 2.31, 95% CI 1.23-4. 33). Like wakeboarding and water skiing, tubing has inherent risks that must be understood by the participant. While tubing is generally considered a safer alternative to wakeboarding and water skiing, the results of the current study suggest otherwise. Both the number and severity of tubing- related injuries could be prevented through means such as advocating the use of protective wear such as helmets while riding a tube or having recommended safe towing speeds prominently placed on inner tubes.

The aim of this study was to assess the effects of 8-weeks of training on active drag in young swimmers of both genders. Eight girls and twelve boys' belonging to the same swimming team and with regular competitive participation in national and regional events for the previous two seasons participated in this study. Active drag measurements were conducted in two different evaluation moments: at the beginning of the season and after 8 weeks of training (6.0 ± 0.15 training units per week, 21.00 ± 3.23 km per week and 3.50 ± 0.23 km per training unit). The maximal swimming velocity at the distance of 13 m, active drag and drag coefficient were measured on both trials by the method of small perturbations with the help of an additional hydrodynamic body. After 8 weeks of training, mean active drag (drag force and drag coefficient) decreased in girls and boys, although no significant differences were found between the two trials. It seems that 8 weeks of swimming training were not sufficient to allow significant improvements on swimming technique.

The purpose of the present study was to examine coaches' perceptions of competence and acknowledgement of training needs related to professional competences according to the professional experience and academic education. The participants were 343 coaches from several sports, who answered to a questionnaire that includes a scale focused on perceptions of competence and another scale on acknowledgment of training needs. An exploratory factor analysis with Maximum Likelihood Factoring was used with Oblimin rotation for the identification of emergent factors. Comparison on coaches' perceptions in function of coaching experience and coaches' academic background were made applying One-way ANOVA and Tukey's post hoc multiple comparisons. Factor analysis on coaches' perceptions of competence and acknowledgement of training needs made apparent three main areas of competences, i.e. competences related to annual and multi-annual planning; competences related to orientation towards practice and competition; and personal and coaching education competences. Coaches' perceptions were influenced by their experience, as low experienced coaches rated themselves at lower levels of competence and with more training needs; also coaches with high education, in Physical Education or others, perceived themselves as more competent than coaches with no higher education. Finally, the majority of the coaches perceived themselves to be competent but, nevertheless, they indicated to have training needs, which brings an important feedback to coach education. This suggests that coaches are interested in increasing their knowledge and competence in a broad range of areas which should be considered in future coach education programs.

The aim
of this study was to examine the effect of changes in speed and incline slope on
plantar pressure distribution of the foot during treadmill jogging. Plantar
pressure parameters were measured with the Pedar-X system in twenty healthy
girls (mean age of 20.7 years, mean height of 1.60m, and a mean weight of
53.35kg). Because variations in walking speed or slope can significantly change
the magnitude of plantar pressure, comparisons of plantar pressure distribution
between the two independent protocols during treadmill jogging were considered
in this study. First, the subjects ran at the same speed of 2 m·s^-1
with different incline slopes of 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15%. Second, they ran on the
same slope of 0% with different speeds of 1.5 m·s^-1, 2.0
m·s^-1, and 2.5 m·s^-1. The peak pressure of the eight
plantar surface areas, apart from the medial forefoot and the hallux,
significantly increased (p < 0.05) with an increase of 33% of peak pressure
from 1.5 m·s^-1 to 2.5 m·s^-1 (speed) at heel region. In
contrast, the peak pressures at the heel, medial fore-foot, toe and hallux
decreased significantly (p < 0. 05) with increasing incline slope. At the
heel, peak pressure reduced by 27% from 0% to 15% incline, however, pressure at
the lateral midfoot region increased as following. Different speeds and incline
slopes during jogging were associated with changes in plantar pressures. By
systematic investigation of foot kinematics and plantar pressure during jogging
with varying incline slope and speed, the results of this study provided further
insight into foot biomechanics during jogging.Key

In this paper a four-ball-best-ball (4BBB) model for pairs of golf players is set up. The 4BBB match-play scoring system is seen to satisfy a basic requirement of fairness. It is shown that it is not strictly possible to rate individual players as 4BBB players. However, a (reasonably broad) class of individual players is identified such that it is possible to rate them individually as 4BBB players. The capacity of an individual to play birdies is seen to be a very important determinant in being a successful member of a 4BBB pair, but there are other minor factors as well. Consideration is given to equal and unequal 4BBB pairs. The transitive law is seen to apply for 4BBB pairs. Thus, if pair A is better than pair B, and pair B is better than pair C, then pair A must be better than pair C. Correspondingly, if pair A is equal to pair B, and pair B is equal to pair C, then pair A is equal to pair C. Consideration is given to some strategic issues in 4BBB match-play golf. For example, the conditions under which a player should take a greater risk and have a higher probability of obtaining a bogie in order to achieve a higher probability of scoring a birdie, are determined. Also, the conditions under which a player, noting that his partner is about to have a ‘bad’ hole and score only a par or a bogie, should ‘play safe’, are determined. Thirdly, players who can interact in certain ways are seen to have an advantage over those pairs that cannot do this. Finally, one pair’s optimal strategy when they see that their opponents are about to score a par or a bogie, but not a birdie, is analyzed.

Various
shoes are worn by distance runners throughout a training season. This study
measured the differences in ground reaction forces between running shoes, racing
flats, and distance spikes in order to provide information about the potential
effects of footwear on injury risk in highly competitive runners. Ten male and
ten female intercollegiate distance runners ran across a force plate at 6.7
m·s^-1 (for males) and 5.7 m·s^-1 (for females) in each of
the three types of shoes. To control for differences in foot strike, only
subjects who exhibited a heel strike were included in the data analysis. Two
repeated-measures ANOVAs with Tukey's post-hoc tests (p < 0.05) were used to
detect differences in shoe types among males and females. For the males, loading
rate, peak vertical impact force and peak braking forces were significantly
greater in flats and spikes compared to running shoes. Vertical stiffness in
spikes was also significantly greater than in running shoes. Females had
significantly shorter stance times and greater maximum propulsion forces in
racing flats compared to running shoes. Changing footwear between the shoes used
in this study alters the loads placed on the body. Care should be taken as
athletes enter different phases of training where different footwear is
required. Injury risk may be increased since the body may not be accustomed to
the differences in force, stance time, and vertical stiffness.

Although
beach soccer has become increasingly popular in recent years very little
scientific research has been conducted into the sport. A pilot study was carried
out with the aim of examining the physiological (heart rate) and physical
(motion analysis) responses of beach soccer players during competitive matches.
Ten players (age 25.5 ± 0.5 years; height 1.80 ± 0.08 m; weight 78.2 ± 5.6 kg.)
were studied over five beach soccer matches. The physiological demands were
analysed by measuring heart rate (HR) using telemetric devices, while the
physical profile was evaluated by recording motion and speed by means of GPS
devices. During competitive matches, players obtained a HR_mean of
165.2 bpm (86.5% HR_max), with 59.3% of the time participating (TP)
corresponding to values above 90% of the HR_max. The distance covered
per minute of participation was 97.7 m, with 9.5% of this distance corresponding
to high-intensity running and 2.5% to sprint; the work:rest ratio was 1.4:1 and
the maximum speed 21.7 km·h^-1. These results showed that beach soccer
is an intermittent physical activity of greater intensity than other team games.
It requires a major contribution from the anaerobic system as emphasis is placed
on players making quick bursts of high-intensity activity separated by brief
rest periods.

Traditional exercise order dictates large muscle group or multijoint exercises should be performed before small muscle group or single joint exercises. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of exercise order on strength and muscle thickness (MT) in untrained men after 12 weeks of linear periodized resistance training. The participants were randomly assigned into three groups. One group began with large and progressed toward small muscle group exercises (LG-SM) while another started with small and advanced to large muscle group exercises (SM-LG). The exercise order for LG-SM was bench press (BP), lat pull-down (LPD), triceps extension (TE), and biceps curl (BC). The order for the SM-LG was BC, TE, LPD, and BP. The third group served as a control group (CG). Training frequency was two sessions/week with at least 72 hours between sessions. One repetition maximum (1RM) for all exercises, biceps and triceps MT (assessed by ultrasound techniques) were collected at baseline and after 12 weeks. After 12 weeks, all exercises for both training groups presented significant 1RM strength gains when compared to CG with exception of BC in LG-SM. Between baseline and post training, all exercises for both training groups presented significant strength gains with exception of BC in LG-SM and BP in SM-LG. Triceps MT for both training groups were significantly higher when compared to the CG, but with no significant differences between them (p > 0.05). Significant differences in MT from pre- to post-training were found only for the SM-LG group (p < 0.05), while the biceps MT presented significant differences only between LG-SM and CG (p < 0.05), Effect size data demonstrated differences in 1RM and triceps MT based on exercise order. In conclusion, if an exercise is important for specific training goals, it should be performed at the beginning of the training session, whether or not it is a large or a small muscle group exercise.

The jump throw is the most applied throwing technique in team- handball (Wagner et al., 2008); however, a comprehensive analysis of 3D-kinematics of the team-handball jump throw is lacking. Therefore, the purpose of our study was: 1) to measure differences in ball release speed in team- handball jump throw and anthropometric parameters between groups of different levels of performance and (2) to analyze upper body 3D-kinematics (flexion/extension and rotation) to determine significant differences between these groups. Three-dimensional kinematic data was analyzed via the Vicon MX 13 motion capturing system (Vicon Peak, Oxford, UK) from 26 male team-handball players of different performance levels (mean age: 21.2 ± 5.0 years). The participants were instructed to throw the ball (IHF Size 3) onto a target at 8 m distance, and to hit the center of a square of 1 × 1 m at about eye level (1.75 m), with maximum ball release speed. Significant differences between elite vs. low level players were found in the ball release speed (p < 0.001), body height (p < 0.05), body weight (p < 0.05), maximal trunk internal rotation (p < 0.05), trunk flexion (p < 0.01) and forearm pronation (p < 0.05) as well as trunk flexion (p < 0.05) and shoulder internal rotation (p < 0.001) angular velocity at ball release. Results of our study suggest that team-handball players who were taller and of greater body weight have the ability to achieve a higher ball release speed in the jump throw, and that an increase in trunk flexion and rotation angular velocity improve the performance in team-handball jump throw that should result in an increase of ball release speed.

The purpose of this study was to analyse, experimentally, the relationships between motivation and performance in a lateral movement test in physical education. The study group consisted of 363 students (227 boys and 136 girls), aged between 12 and 16, who were randomly divided into three groups: an experimental group in which an incremental ability belief was induced, another experimental group in which an entity ability belief was induced, and a control group where there was no intervention. Measurements were made of situational intrinsic motivation, perceived competence in executing the task and performance. The results revealed that the incremental group reported higher scores on the situational intrinsic motivation scale. The entity group demonstrated better performance in the first test attempt than the incremental group but, in the second attempt, the performance was similar in the different groups. Perhaps the initial differences in performance disappeared because the incremental group counted on improving in the second attempt. These results are discussed in relation to the intensity with which the teacher conveys information relating to incremental ability belief of the pupil to increase intrinsic motivation and performance.

Aim of
the present study was to describe the muscle fibre type composition and body
composition of well-trained hammer throwers. Six experienced hammer throwers
underwent the following measurements: one repetition maximum in squat, snatch,
and clean, standing broad jump, backward overhead shot throw and the hammer
throw. Dual x-ray absorptiometry was used for body composition analysis. Fibre
type composition and cross sectional area was determined in muscle biopsy
samples of the right vastus lateralis. Eight physical education students served
as a control group. One repetition maximum in squat, snatch and clean for the
hammer throwers was 245 ± 21, 132 ± 13 and 165 ± 12kg, respectively. Lean body
mass was higher in hammer throwers (85.9 ± 3. 9kg vs. 62.7 ± 5.1kg (p <
0.01). The percentage area of type II muscle fibres was 66.1 ± 4% in hammer
throwers and 51 ± 8% in the control group (p < 0.05). Hammer throwers had
significantly larger type IIA fibres (7703 ± 1171 vs. 5676 ± 1270µm²,
p < 0.01). Hammer throwing performance correlated significantly with lean
body mass (r = 0.81, p < 0.05). These data indicate that hammer throwers have
larger lean body mass and larger muscular areas occupied by type II fibres,
compared with relatively untrained subjects. Moreover, it seems that the
enlarged muscle mass of the hammer throwers contributes significantly to the
hammer throwing performance.

This study aimed to compare the kinematics and kinetics during the landing of hop-jump and step-close-jump movements in order to provide further inferring that the potential risk of ACL injuries. Eleven elite male volleyball players were recruited to perform hop-jump and step-close-jump tasks. Lower extremity kinematics and ground reaction forces during landing in stop-jump tasks were recorded. Lower extremity kinetics was calculated by using an inverse dynamic process. Step-close-jump tasks demonstrated smaller peak proximal tibia anterior shear forces during the landing phase. In step-close-jump tasks, increasing hip joint angular velocity during initial foot-ground contact decreased peak posterior ground reaction force during the landing phase, which theoretically could reduce the risk of ACL injury.

The purpose of this study was to test a motivational model of the coach-athlete relationship, based on self-determination theory and on the hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. The sample comprised of 608 athletes (ages of 12-17 years) completed the following measures: interest in athlete's input, praise for autonomous behavior, perceived autonomy, intrinsic motivation, and the intention to be physically active. Structural equation modeling results demonstrated that interest in athletes' input and praise for autonomous behavior predicted perceived autonomy, and perceived autonomy positively predicted intrinsic motivation. Finally, intrinsic motivation predicted the intention to be physically active in the future. The results are discussed in relation to the importance of the climate of autonomy support created by the coach on intrinsic motivation and adherence to sport by adolescent athletes. Further, the results provide information related to the possible objectives of future interventions for the education of coaches, with the goal of providing them with tools and strategies to favor the development of intrinsic motivation among their athletes. In conclusion, the climate of autonomy support created by the coach can predict the autonomy perceived by the athletes which predicts the intrinsic motivation experienced by the athletes, and therefore, their adherence to athletic practice.

This
study aimed to compare maximal fat oxidation rate parameters between moderate-
and low-performance runners. Eighteen runners performed an incremental treadmill
test to estimate individual maximal fat oxidation rate (Fat_max) based
on gases measures and a 10,000-m run on a track. The subjects were then divided
into a low and moderate performance group using two different criteria: 10,000-m
time and VO₂max values. When groups were divided using 10,000-m time,
there was no significant difference in Fat_max (0.41 ± 0.16 and 0.27 ±
0.12 g.min^-1, p = 0.07) or in the exercise intensity that elicited
Fat_max (59.9 ± 16.5 and 68.7 ± 10.3 % O₂max, p = 0.23)
between the moderate and low performance groups, respectively (p > 0.05).
When groups were divided using VO₂max values, Fat_max was
significantly lower in the low VO₂max group than in the high
VO₂max group (0. 29 ± 0.10 and 0.47 ± 0.17 g.min^-1,
respectively, p < 0.05) but the intensity that elicited Fat_max did
not differ between groups (64.4 ± 14.9 and 61.6 ± 15.4 %VO₂max).
Fat_max or %VO₂max that elicited Fat_max was not
associated with 10,000 m time. The only variable associated with 10,000-m
running performance was %VO₂max used during the run (p < 0.01). In
conclusion, the criteria used for the division of groups according to training
status might influence the identification of differences in Fat_max or
in the intensity that elicits Fat_max.

The aim of the current study was to identify the Rugby game- related statistics that discriminated between winning and losing teams in IRB and S12 close games. Archival data reported to game-related statistics from 120 IRB games and 204 Super Twelve games played between 2003 and 2006. Afterwards, a cluster analysis was conducted to establish, according to game final score differences, three different match groups. Only the close games group was selected for further analysis (IRB n = 64 under 15 points difference and Super Twelve n = 95 under 11 points difference). An analysis to the structure coefficients (SC) obtained through a discriminant analysis allowed to identify the most powerful game-related statistics in discriminating between winning and losing teams. The discriminant functions were statistically significant for Super Twelve games (Chi-square = 33.8, p < 0.01), but not for IRB games (Chi- square = 9.4, p = n.s.). In the first case, winners and losers were discriminated by possessions kicked (SC = 0.48), tackles made (SC = 0.45), rucks and pass (SC = -0.40), passes completed (SC = 0. 39), mauls won (SC = -0.36), turnovers won (SC = -0.33), kicks to touch (SC = 0.32) and errors made (SC = -0.32). The minus sign denotes higher values in losing teams. Rugby game-related statistics were able to discriminate between winners and losers in Super Twelve close games and suggest that a kicking based game supported by an effective defensive structure is more likely to win matches than a possession based one.

The purpose of this study was to find patterns in the butterfly swimming technique, with an adaptation of the Behavioral Observation System Tech. This, as an instrument for ad-hoc qualitative analysis, enables the study of the stability of the technical implementation. When used in the training of swimmers, analysis can reduce the variability of behavioral tuning swimming technique. Through the analysis of temporal patterns (T-pattern) and a sequence of five cycles running at hand maximum speed, the behavior of four technical Portuguese elite swimmers, with a record of 259 alphanumeric codes and a total of 160 configurations, were studied. The structure of the original instrument, based on a mixed system of categories and formats Field, can record technical features, observed during the execution of hand cycles. The validity was ensured through the index of intra-observer reliability (95%) and inter-observer accuracy (96%). To detect patterns in each swimmer, the Theme 5.0 software was used, which allowed to identify the stable structures of technical performance within a critical interval of time (p <0.05) - t-patterns. The patterns were different, adjusting to the characteristics of technical implementation of the swimmers. It was found that the swimmer can create settings with different levels of structure complexity, depending on the implementation of changes within the hand cycle. Variations of codes in each configuration obtained using the SOCTM, allowed determining the differences between swimmers. However, the records showed a clear behavioral similarity when comparing the result with a general pattern of the butterfly technique. The potential quality of this instrument seems to be important due to the patterns obtained from a temporal sequence.

Walking performance changes with age. This has implications for the problem of falls in older adults. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of Yuanji-Dance practice on walking balance and the associated attention demand in healthy elderly. Fifteen community-dwelling elderly (comparison group, no regular exercise habit) and fifteen Yuanji- Dance elderly (exercise group, dancing experience: 5.40 ± 1.95 years), aged 60-70 years, were included in this study. The subjects in exercise group participated in a 90-minute Yuanji-Dance practice at least three times per week and the comparison group continued their normal daily physical activity. Walking balance measures (including walking velocity, step length, step width, and percentage of time spent in double limb support, COM velocity and COM-COP inclination angles) and attentional demand tests (button reaction time and accuracy) were conducted under different conditions. Our results showed that stride lengths, walking velocities, peak A/P velocities (AP V) of the COM, medial COM-COP inclination (M angle) angles, reaction time, and accuracy decrease significantly as the dual-task (walking plus hand button pressing tasks) applied for either the comparison or exercise groups. These results demonstrated that walking performance is attenuated in our elderly participants as the cognitive tasks applied. Analysis also identified a significantly faster RT for our exercise group both in standing and walking conditions. This may indicate that physical exercise (Yuanji-Dance) may have facilitating effects on general cognitive and perceptual- motor functions. This implies that Chinese Yuanji-Dance practice for elderly adults may improve their personal safety when walking especially under the condition of multiple task demand.

This
study compared the effects of 12 weeks of caloric restriction and interval
exercise (INT) and caloric restriction and continuous aerobic exercise (CON) on
physiological outcomes in an obese population. Forty-four individuals (BMI
> 30 kg·m^-2) were randomised into the INT or CON group.
Participant withdrawal resulted in 12 and 14 participants in the INT and CON
groups, respectively. All participants were on a strict monitored diet. Exercise
involved two 15-min bouts of walking performed on five days per week. Interval
exercise consisted of a 2:1 min ratio of low-intensity (40-45%
VO_2peak) and high- intensity (70-75% VO_2peak) exercise,
while the CON group exercised between 50-55% VO_2peak. Exercise
duration and average intensity (%VO_2peak) were similar between
groups. There were no significant differences (p > 0.05) between the two
groups for any variable assessed apart from very low density lipoprotein
(VLDL-C), which significantly decreased over time in the INT group only (p <
0.05, d = 1.03). Caloric restriction and interval exercise compared to caloric
restriction and continuous aerobic exercise resulted in similar outcome measures
apart from VLDL-C levels, which significantly improved in the INT group only.

The he purpose of this study is to examine the effects of ball velocity, court illumination, and volley type on the reaction time (RT) of a tennis athlete for a volley stroke. Eights cases with two different ball velocities (high and low), two volley types (forehand and backhand ) and two court illumination levels (dark and bright) were studied. The 30 participating subjects consisted of 18 male and 12 female college tennis athletes (age: 24 ± 3.2 yr), with a United States Tennis Association (USTA) ranking above 2.5. In order to ensure the validity of real-world correlations, the experiments were designed to simulate real competition situations. Reaction times were measured for volley strokes in response to different approaching ball velocities (high: 25.05 ± 0.37 m/s and low: 17.56 ± 0.92 m·s-1) for several volley types (forehand and backhand) and court illumination levels (55649 ± 4292 lux and 363.24 ± 6.53 lux on the court). During the tests, the signals from an electromyogram sensor and a 3-axis accelerometer (± 50 g) were recorded using an NI DAQ card (NI PXI-6251) and then analyzed to determine reaction time (RT), premotor reaction time (PRT), and motor reaction time (MRT) through the LabVIEW system. Subsequent 3-way ANOVA analysis indicated no RT, PRT, or MRT interaction between ball velocity, volley type and illumination. The ball velocity and illumination parameters did affect RT and PRT values significantly with p < 0.05, no significant variation in MRT was observed across any implemented experimental conditions. All experimental results indicate that ball velocity and illumination levels strongly affect the value of PRT, but have no significant effect on the value of MRT, the changes in RT were dominated by PRT.

Exercise on an isokinetic device involves three distinct movement phases: acceleration, constant velocity, and deceleration. Inherent in these phases are unique occurrences that may confound test data and, thereby, test interpretation. Standard methods of data reduction like windowing and other techniques consist of removing the acceleration and deceleration phases in order to assure analysis under constant velocity conditions. However, none of these techniques adequately quantify the velocity overshoot (VO) movement artifact which is a result of the devices resistance imposed to the limb. This study tested the influence of VO on isokinetic data interpretation. A computational algorithm was developed to accurately identify each movement phase and to delineate the VO segment. Therefore, the VO was then treated as a fourth and independent phase. A total of sixteen healthy men (26.8 ± 4.7 yrs, 1.76 ± 0.05 m, and 79.2 ± 9.4 kg) performed two sets of ten maximal concentric extension repetitions of their dominant knee (at 60º·s-1 and 180º·s-1), on separate days and in a counterbalanced order, on a Biodex System 3 Pro dynamometer. All the phases of the isokinetic exercise were measured in terms of their biomechanical descriptors and according to the developed algorithm, the windowing method, and a data reduction technique that eliminates the first and last 10º of the total range of motion. Results showed significant differences (p < 0.05) between the constant velocity phases found by each method: the largest segment was obtained with the windowing method; the second one, with the algorithm; and the smallest, with data reduction technique. The point of peak torque was not affected by none of the techniques, but significant differences (p < 0.05) were found between the data including and not including the VO phase, concerning total work, time interval, and average length of load range: VO represents more than 10% of the amount calculated in constant velocity phase. As a consequence, the correct removal of VO was suggested as a required procedure to adequately interpret isokinetic tests. Therefore, the use of the proposed algorithm is advisable in order to perform analysis according to the isokinetic definition.

The purpose of this study was to examine trunk rotational patterns and weight transfer patterns that may differentiate swing skill level in golfers. Thirteen skilled golfers (mean handicap = 0.8 ± 2.6) and seventeen low skilled golfers (mean handicap = 30.8 ± 5.5) participated in this study. Kinematic and kinetic data were obtained through high-speed 3-D videography and force plates while the participant performed a full shot golf swing with a driver. Data at six temporal events during the swing were selected for the analysis. The results indicated that significant differences existed between the groups in the multiple events, as the skilled golfers showed the following motion patterns when compared to the low skilled golfers; 1) An earlier trunk horizontal rotation with a rapid weight transfer to the trail foot during the backswing; 2) An earlier pelvic horizontal rotation accompanied with an earlier weight transfer to the lead foot during the downswing motion; and 3) Less upper trunk horizontal rotation and more posterior pelvic rotation at the follow through. Collectively, these finding may be useful for instruction of golfers to improve their swing mechanics on a full shot golf swing.